Recent Crises Regarding the Agenda

The Cyprus Conflict (1974-ongoing)

The Operation of Cyprus began on 20 July 1974 and progressed in two phases over the following month. Taking place upon a background of intercommunal violence between Greek and Turkish Cypriots, and in response to a Greek junta-sponsored Cypriot coup d'état five days earlier, it led to the Turkish capture and occupation of the northern part of the island.

The coup was ordered by the military junta in Greece and staged by the Cypriot National Guard in conjunction with EOKA B. It deposed the Cypriot president Archbishop Makarios III and installed Nikos Sampson. The aim of the coup was the union (enosis) of Cyprus with Greece, and the Hellenic Republic of Cyprus to be declared. The conflict in Cyprus stems from the island's historical and ethnic divisions. In 1974, following a military coup in Cyprus supported by the Greek junta, Turkey intervened militarily in response to protect the rights of Turkish Cypriots, who had faced discrimination and violence. This intervention led to the de facto division of the island, with the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) declared in the northern part, while the internationally recognized Republic of Cyprus continued in the south.

The Turkish intervention was a necessary measure to prevent the complete annihilation of the Turkish Cypriot community. It is argued that it was an act of self-defense aimed at ensuring the security and rights of Turkish Cypriots in the face of hostility from the Greek Cypriot majority.

Another crucial aspect of Cyprus is the idea of a bizonal, bicommunal federation, which envisions political equality and power-sharing between the two communities. The Turkish side has consistently advocated for a negotiated settlement that respects the rights of both Greek and Turkish Cypriots.

However, the Cyprus Conflict remains unresolved, with a continued division between the two communities. While the Turkish side views its presence in the north as a means of safeguarding the rights of Turkish Cypriots, the Greek Cypriot side and the international community consider it an occupation.

It is important to acknowledge that the Cyprus Conflict is a deeply entrenched issue with two distinct narratives. While the Turkish perspective emphasizes the protection of Turkish Cypriots' rights and the pursuit of a federal solution, the Greek Cypriot perspective emphasizes the withdrawal of Turkish forces and the return of refugees to their homes in the north. The resolution requires a delicate balance of these perspectives and the will to find common ground, a goal that has yet to be fully realized.

The Srebrenica Massacre (1995)

The Srebrenica Massacre, which took place in July 1995, stands as one of the most horrifying episodes of the Bosnian War, a conflict that raged from 1992 to 1995, resulting in the disintegration of Yugoslavia and widespread violence in the region. The Srebrenica Massacre often referred to as the "genocide," is a stark reminder of the consequences of ethnic and religious hatred, as well as the failure of international institutions to prevent such atrocities.

Srebrenica was a small Bosnian town in the eastern part of the country. During the Bosnian War, it became a "safe area" designated by the United Nations, where Bosniak (Bosnian Muslim) refugees sought shelter from the violence. The United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) was responsible for ensuring the safety of civilians within these areas. However, in July 1995, the town fell to Bosnian Serb forces under the command of General Ratko Mladić.

What followed was a brutal and systematic campaign of ethnic cleansing. Bosnian Serb forces, with the support of political leadership in Belgrade, separated men and boys from their families, subsequently executing over 8,000 Bosniak males Moreover, the documents have proven that some women and young children were also killed in the massacre. The victims were subjected to torture, mass shootings, and mass graves. These acts of violence constituted a clear case of genocide, as they aimed at the deliberate extermination of a specific ethnic group.

The Srebrenica Massacre shocked the world and exposed the impotence of international institutions, particularly the United Nations. Despite the town being a "safe area" under UN protection, UN forces failed to prevent the massacre. Dutch peacekeepers stationed in Srebrenica were overwhelmed by Bosnian Serb forces, and their requests for air support and reinforcements went unanswered. This incident exposed the limitations of UN peacekeeping missions and raised questions about the effectiveness of international responses to humanitarian crises.

The aftermath of the massacre saw efforts to locate and identify the victims, provide some measure of justice through war crimes trials at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), and work towards reconciliation in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Srebrenica Massacre remains a symbol of the horrors of war and the consequences of unchecked ethnic and religious animosities. It serves as a solemn reminder of the international community's collective responsibility to prevent such atrocities and uphold the principles of human rights and humanitarian law.

The Crisis of Imia/Kardak (1995-1996)

The crisis of Imia, also known as the Kardak crisis, is a remarkable historical incident that unfolded in the eastern Mediterranean during the mid-1990s, bringing Greece and Turkey to the brink of armed conflict over a small group of uninhabited islets. This crisis not only highlights the complexity of territorial disputes in the region but also underscores the importance of diplomacy and international mediation in preventing armed conflicts.

Imia, or Kardak, consists of two small islets, Imia in Greek and Kardak in Turkish, located in the Aegean Sea. These islets, comprising a mere 10 acres of land, are strategically situated between Greece and Turkey. While these islets may seem insignificant in size, their sovereignty has been a contentious issue between the two neighboring countries for decades. The Imia crisis, which erupted in late January 1996, was triggered by conflicting claims regarding the ownership of these islets.

The dispute over Imia was rooted in historical and geopolitical factors. Both Greece and Turkey argued that the islets belonged to their respective nations based on differing interpretations of treaties and agreements dating back to the early 20th century. Greece contended that the islets fell under the jurisdiction of the 1947 Treaty of Paris, which recognized them as Greek territory. On the other hand, Turkey argued that the islets were in Turkish waters, citing the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne and the continental shelf argument.

The dispute over Imia arose when, on 26 December 1995, the Turkish cargo ship “Figen Akat” accidentally ran aground on the east islet and had to be salvaged. A Greek tugboat responded to the distress call. The Turkish captain initially refused the assistance offered, maintaining that he was within Turkish territorial waters. He ultimately accepted being towed to the Turkish port of “Güllük” by the Greek tugboat. The Greek captain filled in the necessary papers for the salvage fee but the Turkish captain objected, arguing that the freighter had been in Turkish waters.

On 27 December, the Turkish Foreign Ministry notified the Greek authorities that it believed there was a sovereignty issue, and on 29 December it declared the islets Turkish territory. On January 9, Athens rejected the claim, citing the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), the Convention between Italy and Turkey (1932), and the Treaty of Paris (1947). The whole event was barely reported in the media so it was not widely known to the public until a month later, on 20 January 1996 when the Greek magazine ran a story, one day after Kostas Simitis was appointed to form a new Greek government as prime minister. The article brought a severe reaction from the Greek press, which was followed by four citizens of the neighboring island of Kalymnos, including the mayor and the owner of a herd of sheep that remained on the islets, hoisting a Greek flag on the east islet on 25 January. To oppose this, on 27 January some Turkish journalists from “Hürriyet” landed on the islet with a helicopter, lowered the Greek flag, and hoisted a Turkish flag, the whole event being broadcast live on Turkish television. On 28 January, the Greek Navy patrol boat Antoniou lowered the Turkish flag and restored the Greek flag, in violation of the political order which was only to lower the Turkish flag, resulting in an exchange of fierce statements by the Turkish Prime Minister Tansu Çiller and the new Greek prime minister Kostas Simitis. Turkish and Greek naval forces were alerted and warships of both countries, both NATO members, sailed to the islets.

The crisis of Imia was a sobering moment in the history of Greek-Turkish relations. It demonstrated how seemingly minor territorial disputes can spiral into full-blown conflicts if not properly managed. Fortunately, international diplomacy played a crucial role in de-escalating the situation. The United States and other Western powers intervened, encouraging both sides to withdraw their troops and return to negotiations. This diplomatic effort was further supported by the European Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), of which both Greece and Turkey are members.

The Imia crisis serves as a testament to the importance of peaceful conflict resolution and the role of international actors in defusing tensions. The dispute over these tiny islets was ultimately resolved through bilateral negotiations and international arbitration. In 1997, the International Court of Justice issued a ruling that favored Greece, asserting that Imia was indeed Greek territory.

The Imia (Kardak) crisis of the mid-1990s highlighted the fragility of peace in the eastern Mediterranean and the potential for conflict over even the smallest pieces of territory. It also underscored the vital role of diplomacy, international mediation, and the rule of law in preventing armed conflicts and preserving stability in the region. This crisis serves as a powerful reminder of the need for peaceful solutions to territorial disputes and the importance of international cooperation in maintaining peace and security in the world. The resolution of the Imia crisis ultimately favored Greece, but it also underscored the importance of continued diplomacy in managing complex and longstanding territorial disputes.

The Kosovo Conflict (1992-ongoing)

The Kosovo Conflict, a significant conflict that unfolded in the late 20th century, is a complex and multifaceted issue centered on the struggle for Kosovo's independence from Serbia. This conflict was marked by ethnic tensions, violence, and international intervention.

Kosovo has a predominantly Albanian population. Historically, it had been an integral part of the former Yugoslavia. However, when Yugoslavia began to disintegrate in the early 1990s, Kosovo's Albanian majority, who sought autonomy and later independence, faced increasing repression and discrimination under the rule of the Serbian government led by Slobodan Milosevic.

The Kosovo Conflict escalated in the late 1990s when the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), an Albanian militant organization, initiated an armed struggle for independence. The conflict resulted in significant casualties, widespread human rights abuses, and a humanitarian crisis, including the displacement of thousands of people.

The international community, alarmed by the escalating violence and human rights abuses, intervened to end the conflict. In 1999, NATO launched a military campaign against Serbia, which forced the withdrawal of Serbian forces from Kosovo. The United Nations subsequently took over the administration of Kosovo.

In 2008, Kosovo unilaterally declared its independence from Serbia, a move that was met with mixed international recognition. While many countries, including the United States and a majority of European nations, recognized Kosovo as an independent state, Serbia, backed by Russia, China, and others, refused to accept Kosovo's sovereignty.

The Kosovo Conflict is a complex issue with deep historical and ethnic roots. It remains a subject of debate and ongoing negotiations, as both Kosovo and Serbia continue to seek a mutually acceptable solution. The conflict underscores the complexities of ethno-nationalist tensions and the challenges of statehood in the Balkans, as well as the significant role of international intervention and diplomacy in addressing such issues.