The Historical Background

National Movements in the Late-Ottoman Era

The Ottoman Empire was one of the biggest empires of all times extending to three continents, stretching from the Balkans in southeastern Europe across Anatolia, Caucasus, Central Asia, Arabia, and North Africa during the Middle Ages. High prosperity, wealth, and victories were the inseparables of the empire for centuries. However, after the French Revolution in 1789, which caused the spread of nationalism, the collapse of the multinational empires, and the establishment of national states, the Ottoman Empire was one the most affected.

The following events are the most effective ones in the Balkan Region, all of them threatening the Ottoman Empire’s integrity.

• Bulgarian National Revival and National Awakening of Bulgaria (18-19th century)

• Serbian Revolution (1804–1815/1817/1833)

• Greek War of Independence (1821–1832)

• Albanian National Awakening (1830-1912)

• Bosnian Uprising (1831–1832)

Bulgarian National Revival

Bulgarian National Revival, was a period of socio-economic development and national integration among Bulgarian people under Ottoman rule. It is commonly accepted to have started with the historical book ‘Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya’ written in 1762 by Paisius, a Bulgarian monk at Mount Athos, leading to the National awakening of Bulgaria and the modern Bulgarian nationalism, and lasted until the Liberation of Bulgaria in 1878 as a result of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878.

National Awakening of Bulgaria

The National Awakening of Bulgaria refers to the Bulgarian nationalism that emerged in the early 19th century under the influence of Western ideas such as liberalism and nationalism, which trickled into the country after the French Revolution.

Serbian Revolution

The Serbian Revolution was a national uprising and constitutional change in Serbia that took place between 1804 and 1835, during which this territory evolved from an Ottoman province into a rebel territory, a constitutional monarchy, and modern Serbia. In 1804, the Ottoman Janissary decided to execute all prominent nobles throughout Central Serbia, a move known as the Slaughter of the Knezes. The heads of the murdered Serbian nobles were put on public display in the central square to serve as an example to those who might plot against Ottoman rule. The event triggered the start of the Serbian Revolution aimed at putting an end to the 370 years of Ottoman occupation.

The first part of the period, from 1804 to 1817, was marked by a violent struggle for independence from the Ottoman Empire with two armed uprisings taking place, ending with a ceasefire. The later period (1817–1835) witnessed a peaceful consolidation of political power of the increasingly autonomous Serbia, culminating in the recognition of the right to hereditary rule by Serbian princes in 1830 and 1833 and the territorial expansion of the young monarchy.

Albanian National Awakening

Albanian National Awakening is a period throughout the 19th and 20th centuries of a cultural, political, and social movement in Albanian history where the Albanian people gathered strength to establish an independent cultural and political life as well as the country of Albania. We can examine the revolts under three main timelines:

• 1831–1878

• 1910

• 1911

• 1912

Bosnian Uprising

The Bosnian uprising was a revolt of Bosnian ayans against the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II. The casus belli were reforms implemented by the Sultan to abolish the ayan system. Despite winning several notable victories, the rebels were eventually defeated in a battle near Sarajevo in 1832. Internal discord contributed to the failure of the rebellion because Gradaščević was not supported by many of the Herzegovinian ayans.

As a result, Ali Pasha Rizvanbegović was named pasha of the Herzegovina Eyalet which was seceded in 1833. The Sultan implemented the new pasha's representative system, abolishing the old ayan system. The new pasha's representatives were mostly old ayans, but in 1850 Omer Pasha eliminated old ayan families.

BALKAN WARS

First Balkan War

The First Balkan War, which erupted in 1912, was a watershed moment in the complex tapestry of Balkan history, marking a significant shift in the power dynamics and territorial boundaries of the region. This conflict arose primarily due to the desire of several Balkan states – Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria – to liberate their fellow ethnic brethren from the rule of the declining Ottoman Empire.

The initial spark for the war was the Italo-Turkish War of 1911-1912, which weakened the Ottoman Empire and emboldened the Balkan states to challenge its dominance in the region. These nations, united by a shared desire for independence and territorial expansion, formed the Balkan League in anticipation of their joint military actions against the Ottoman army.

In October 1912, the Balkan League launched a coordinated attack against the Ottoman Empire. Their military swiftly overpowered the Ottoman armies in a series of decisive battles across the region. The combined forces of Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, and Bulgaria managed to secure significant victories, liberating large swathes of territory that had been under Ottoman rule for centuries.

However, the rapid success of the Balkan League soon led to internal tensions and conflicts among its members. Disputes over the division of captured territories, particularly Macedonia, triggered hostilities between Bulgaria and its former allies. The lack of a clear and agreed-upon plan for the distribution of conquered lands escalated into the Second Balkan War in 1913, pitting the erstwhile allies against each other.

During the war, many civilians, overwhelmingly Muslim Turks were either killed or forced to flee from their homes. The highly politicized and disorganized units of the Ottoman army were quite incapable of evacuating the civilians in the war zone. This situation left many civilians in the occupied areas defenseless against the invading armies of the Balkan League. Although there are discussions about the exact amount of civilian casualties, when the war ended, great changes occurred in the demographic makeup of the Balkan region.

The First Balkan War fundamentally altered the geopolitical landscape of the Balkans. The Treaty of London in 1913, which concluded the conflict, saw the Ottoman Empire losing nearly all of its European territories, while the victorious Balkan states expanded their borders and populations. However, the unresolved territorial disputes sowed the seeds for future conflicts that would erupt in the region, ultimately contributing to the outbreak of World War I.

Second Balkan War

The Second Balkan War, which unfolded in 1913, was the direct consequence of unresolved territorial disputes and strained relationships among the Balkan states following their victory in the First Balkan War. Initially allied against the Ottoman Empire, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro, and Bulgaria found themselves embroiled in conflict over the division of the territories they had liberated from Ottoman rule.

The peace settlements after the First Balkan War failed to satisfy Bulgaria's territorial ambitions. Disputes arose over the division of Macedonia and other territories, leading Bulgaria to feel marginalized and shortchanged by its former allies. In June 1913, Bulgaria launched a surprise attack on Serbia and Greece, initiating the Second Balkan War.

Despite Bulgaria's initial gains, the conflict quickly turned against them. Romania, dissatisfied with Bulgaria's gains from the First Balkan War, joined forces with Serbia, Greece, and the Ottoman Empire against Bulgaria. The Bulgarian forces faced a multi-front war, ultimately resulting in their defeat.

The Treaty of Bucharest in August 1913 marked the conclusion of the Second Balkan War. Bulgaria, having suffered significant territorial losses, was compelled to cede substantial portions of its previously gained territories to Serbia, Greece, and Romania. This defeat drastically weakened Bulgaria's regional power and influence.

The Second Balkan War further exacerbated ethnic tensions and resentments in the region. It solidified the borders of several Balkan states but left deep-seated grievances that would continue to simmer, contributing to the volatile atmosphere that eventually erupted in the conflagration of World War I.