Greece

Ottoman Greece

The period of Ottoman rule in Greece lasted from the mid-15th century to the Greek War of Independence that broke out in 1821 and the First Hellenic Republic (1822). In some regions, however, like the Ionian Islands, various temporary Venetian possessions did not become part of the Ottoman administration, but the last was under Ottoman suzerainty.

Ottoman Greece was a multiethnic society. However, the Ottoman system of millets did not correspond to the modern Western notion of multiculturalism. The Greeks were given some privileges and freedom, but they also suffered from the malpractices of their administrative personnel over which the central government had only remote and incomplete control. Despite losing their political independence, the Greeks remained dominant in the fields of commerce and business. The consolidation of Ottoman power in the 15th and 16th centuries rendered the Mediterranean safe for Greek shipping, and Greek ship-owners became the empire's maritime carriers and made tremendous profits.

The period of Ottoman rule had a profound impact on Greek society, as new elites emerged. The Greek land-owning aristocracy that traditionally dominated the Byzantine Empire suffered a tragic fate and was destroyed. The new leading class in Ottoman Greece was the prokritoi, which were called kocabaşis by the Ottomans. They were essentially bureaucrats and tax collectors and gained a negative reputation for corruption and nepotism.

On the other hand, The Sultan regarded the Ecumenical Patriarch of the Greek Orthodox Church as the leader of all Orthodox, Greeks or not, within the empire. The Patriarch was accountable to the Sultan for the good behavior of the Orthodox population, and in exchange, he was given wide powers over the Orthodox communities, including the non-Greek Slavic peoples. The Patriarch controlled the courts and the schools, as well as the Church, throughout the Greek communities of the empire. This made Orthodox priests, together with the local magnates, called Prokritoi, the effective rulers of Greek towns and cities.

From the late 1600s, Greeks began to fill some of the highest and most important offices of the Ottoman state. The Phanariotes, a class of wealthy Greeks who lived in the Phanar district of Constantinople, became increasingly powerful as diplomats and businessmen. Their travels to Western Europe brought them into contact with advanced ideas of liberalism and nationalism, and it was among the Phanariotes that the Modern Greek nationalist movement was born. Many Greek merchants and travelers were influenced by the ideas of the French Revolution and a new Age of Greek Enlightenment was initiated at the beginning of the 19th century in many Ottoman-ruled Greek cities and towns.

Uprisings before 1821

Greeks in various places of the Greek peninsula sometimes would rise up against Ottoman rule, mainly while taking advantage of wars the Ottoman Empire would engage in. Those uprisings were of mixed scale and impact. Those are some of the examples of the wars, in which the Ottoman Empire was included, that the Greeks used as an advantage to start an uprising:

• Ottoman-Venetian War (1463–1479)

• Wars of the Holy League/The Great Turkish War (1683-1699)

• Cretan War (1645–1669)

• Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)

Greek War of Independence

The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution, was a successful war of independence by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1829. In 1826, the British Empire, the Kingdom of France, and the Russian Empire assisted the Greeks, while North African vassals aided the Ottomans, particularly the Eyalet of Egypt. The war led to the formation of modern Greece, which would be expanded to its modern size in later years.

First Hellenic Republic

The First Hellenic Republic was the provisional Greek state during the Greek Revolution against the Ottoman Empire. From 1822 until 1827, it was known as the Provisional Administration of Greece, and between 1827 and 1832, it was known as the Hellenic State.

The new state was not recognized by the Great Powers of the day, which, after initial successes, was threatened with collapse both from within due to civil war and from without through the victories of the Turco-Egyptian army. By 1827, the Greek revolution had almost been extinguished on the mainland, but by this time the Great Powers had come to agree to the formation of an autonomous Greek state under Ottoman suzerainty, as stipulated in the Treaty of London. Ottoman refusal to accept these terms led to the Battle of Navarino, which effectively secured complete Greek independence.

Due to the power vacuum in the state, the Fifth National Assembly at Nafplion drafted a new royal constitution, while the three "Protecting Powers" (Great Britain, France, and Russia) intervened, declaring Greece a Kingdom in the London Conference of 1832, with the Bavarian Prince Otto of Wittelsbach as king.

Kingdom of Greece

The Kingdom of Greece, established in 1832, marked a significant chapter in Greek history. This period, which lasted until 1924, was characterized by profound political, social, and cultural transformations that shaped modern Greece.

The London Protocol of 1830 recognized Greece as an independent state, and in 1832, the European powers, particularly the United Kingdom, France, and Russia, installed Prince Otto of Bavaria as its first monarch. Otto's reign, marked by foreign influence and autocratic rule, faced resistance from the Greek people, leading to his eventual deposition in 1862.

After Otto's removal, Greece went through a series of political changes, transitioning from a monarchy to a republic and back to a monarchy under the Danish Prince George I in 1863. During his rule, Greece underwent a period of nation-building and territorial expansion, which included the acquisition of the Ionian Islands and Thessaly.

Despite these achievements, Greece faced economic challenges and territorial disputes, especially with the Ottoman Empire. The Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 allowed Greece to expand its territory further, gaining parts of Macedonia, Epirus, and the Aegean Islands.

The Kingdom of Greece (1832-1924) witnessed significant growth, despite the challenges it faced. This period laid the foundation for the modern Greek state and set the stage for further developments in the 20th century, even though it ultimately came to an end with the establishment of the Second Hellenic Republic in 1924.

Second Hellenic Republic

The Second Greek Republic, established in 1924, followed the overthrow of the monarchy, resulting in significant social and political changes that would shape the country for the decades to come.

The foundation of the Second Greek Republic was the outcome of a coup d'état led by Greek military officers, known as the "Revolution of 1922." The monarchy, under King Constantine I, was blamed for the disastrous outcome of the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922), which resulted in the loss of Anatolian territories and a massive population exchange between Greece and Turkey. As a result, the monarchy was abolished, and Greece declared a republic on March 25, 1924.

The Second Greek Republic was characterized by a republican constitution and a tumultuous political landscape. Over the years, it has experienced several constitutional changes, military coups, and political instability. Various political parties and factions vied for power, and the country faced internal strife and external threats, particularly from neighboring Turkey.

One of the notable aspects of the Second Greek Republic was its efforts to modernize Greek society. There were reforms in areas such as education, land distribution, and women's suffrage. However, these reforms often faced resistance and challenges, and the republic was unable to bring about the comprehensive social and political transformation that was initially envisioned.

In 1935, General Georgios Kondylis seized power in a coup, and the republic was dissolved, leading to the restoration of the monarchy under King George II. This marked the end of the Second Greek Republic, which had lasted for just over a decade.

The Second Greek Republic, although short-lived and marked by political turbulence, played a crucial role in Greece's transition to a more modern and democratic state. Its legacy includes the idea of a republican form of government in Greece and some of the early attempts at social and political reforms that would be continued and expanded upon in the decades that followed. The republic also highlighted the challenges of managing a diverse and often divided society in the aftermath of the Greco-Turkish War. While the Second Greek Republic ultimately gave way to the monarchy, it left an indelible mark on Greece's political evolution.

The Greek Restoration of Monarchy

The Greek Restoration of Monarchy took place in 1935 and marked the return of the monarchy after the short-lived Second Greek Republic. General Georgios Kondylis, who had previously seized power in a coup, played a pivotal role in this restoration. The reasons for this reversal were complex and tied to the political instability and dissatisfaction with the republic's performance. King George II was reinstated as the monarch, although the monarchy itself remained a subject of contention in Greek politics. The restoration of the monarchy was seen by some as a return to stability and tradition, while others viewed it with skepticism, considering it a setback to Greece's democratic aspirations.

The 4 August Regime

On 4 August 1936 General Ioannis Metaxas, a prominent figure in Greek politics, established a Regime, also known as the “Metaxas Regime,” This authoritarian regime came to power through a coup, and Metaxas subsequently assumed dictatorial control over the country.

Metaxas' regime was characterized by strict censorship, suppression of political opposition, and the establishment of a totalitarian state. It was ideologically aligned with fascism and sought to impose strict nationalist and authoritarian policies. The regime heavily promoted Greek nationalism and sought to restore what it considered traditional Greek values.

One of the defining elements of the 4 August Regime was its creation of the "Regime of the Fourth of August," which served as an ideological framework for the regime's policies. Metaxas ruled by decree, and the regime maintained a strong grip on the media and educational institutions. The regime also adopted a pro-German and pro-Italian foreign policy orientation, aligning itself with fascist regimes in Europe at the time.

Despite Metaxas’ aping of Fascism and the strong economic ties with resurgent Nazi Germany, Metaxas followed a policy of neutrality, given Greece's traditionally strong ties to Britain, reinforced by King George II's personal Anglophilia. In April 1939, the Italian threat suddenly loomed closer, as Italy annexed Albania, whereupon Britain publicly guaranteed Greece's borders. Thus, when World War II broke out in September 1939, Greece remained neutral.

The 4th August Regime ended with the death of General Metaxas in 1941, just as Greece became embroiled in World War II. Greece's occupation by Axis forces during the war eventually led to a period of resistance and the country's liberation.

WW2 Period

Despite this declared neutrality, Greece became a target for Mussolini's expansionist policies. Italian troops crossed the border on 28 October 1940, beginning the Greco-Italian War, but were stopped by a determined Greek defense, and ultimately driven back into Albania.

In the meantime, Adolf Hitler was reluctantly forced to divert German troops to rescue Mussolini from defeat and attacked Greece through Yugoslavia and Bulgaria on 6 April 1941. Despite British assistance, by the end of May, the Germans had overrun most of the country. The king and the government escaped to Crete, where they stayed until the end of the Battle of Crete. They then transferred to Egypt, where a government in exile was established. The occupied country was divided into three zones (German, Italian, and Bulgarian), and in Athens, a puppet regime was established.

Greece suffered terrible privations during World War II, as the Germans appropriated most of the country's agricultural production and prevented its fishing fleets from operating. As a result, and because a British blockade initially hindered foreign relief efforts, a wide-scale famine resulted, when hundreds of thousands perished. In the mountains of the Greek mainland, in the meantime, several resistance movements sprang up, and by mid-1943, the Axis forces controlled only the main towns and the connecting roads, while a "Free Greece" was set up in the mountains. The largest resistance group, the National Liberation Front (EAM), was controlled by the Communists, as was (ELAS) led by Aris Velouchiotis and a civil war soon broke out between it and non-Communist groups such as the National Republican Greek League (EDES) in those areas liberated from the Germans. The exiled government in Cairo was only intermittently in touch with the resistance movement and exercised virtually no influence in the occupied country.

Greek Civil War

German forces withdrew on 12 October 1944, and the government in exile returned to Athens. After the German withdrawal, the EAM-ELAS guerrilla army effectively controlled most of Greece, but its leaders were reluctant to take control of the country, as they knew that Stalin had agreed that Greece would be in the British sphere of influence after the war. Tensions between the British-backed Papandreou and EAM, especially over the issue of disarmament of the various armed groups, led to the resignation of the latter's ministers from the government.

A few days later, on 3 December 1944, a large-scale pro-EAM demonstration in Athens ended in violence and ushered in an intense, house-to-house struggle with British and monarchist forces (the Dekemvriana). After three weeks, the Communists were defeated: the Varkiza agreement ended the conflict and disarmed ELAS, and an unstable coalition government was formed. The anti-EAM backlash grew into a full-scale "White Terror", which exacerbated tensions.

The Communists boycotted the March 1946 elections, and on the same day, fighting broke out again. By the end of 1946, the Communist Democratic Army of Greece had been formed, pitted against the governmental National Army, which was backed first by Britain and after 1947 by the United States.

Communist successes in 1947–1948 enabled them to move freely over much of mainland Greece, but with the extensive reorganization, the deportation of rural populations, and American material support, the National Army was slowly able to regain control over most of the countryside. In 1949, the insurgents suffered a major blow, as Yugoslavia closed its borders following the split between Marshal Josip Broz Tito with the Soviet Union.

In August 1949, the National Army under Marshal Alexander Papagos launched an offensive that forced the remaining insurgents to surrender or flee across the northern border into the territory of Greece's northern Communist neighbors. The civil war resulted in 100,000 killed and caused catastrophic economic disruption. Moreover, at least 25,000 Greeks were either voluntarily or forcibly evacuated to Eastern Bloc countries, while 700,000 became displaced persons inside the country. Many more emigrated to Australia and other countries.

Postwar Greece and the Fall of the Monarchy

The period from 1950 to 1973 was a transformative and tumultuous time in Greece's history, marked by significant political, social, and economic developments. It saw Greece evolve from a war-torn, agrarian society into a more industrialized and urbanized nation.

The early 1950s in Greece were characterized by the aftermath of World War II and the Greek Civil War, which had left the country divided and in ruins. The civil war fought between communist forces and the government, ended in 1949 with the government's victory. During the 1950s, Greece received significant American economic and military aid through the Marshall Plan and Truman Doctrine, which played a pivotal role in its post-war recovery. These foreign aid programs facilitated Greece's economic reconstruction, infrastructure development, and modernization efforts. The 1950s also saw the beginning of significant migration from rural areas to cities, as Greeks sought better economic opportunities. Urbanization and industrialization gradually changed the country's social and economic landscape.

Military Dictatorship (1967-1974)

In 1967, a military coup led by a group of colonels marked a significant turning point in Greek history. The coup established a military junta that suspended democratic institutions, censored the media, and curtailed civil liberties. The junta, led by Colonel Georgios Papadopoulos, aimed to suppress political dissent and maintain strict control over Greek society. This period, known as the Regime of the Colonels, lasted until 1974.

The junta's rule was marked by political repression, human rights abuses, and censorship. The regime's foreign policy was characterized by alignment with Western countries, particularly the United States, during the Cold War. Despite their anti-communist stance, the junta's authoritarian measures and suppression of political opposition drew international condemnation. The regime faced opposition from various domestic groups, including students, intellectuals, and some segments of the population, who participated in protests and acts of civil disobedience. International pressure, as well as the Cyprus crisis in 1974, eventually led to the fall of the junta and the restoration of democracy in Greece.

Third Hellenic Republic

After the end of the military régime, democracy was restored. The fall of the junta was followed by the metabolites.

The restoration of democracy in Greece was a momentous event, with a new constitution adopted in 1975. This constitution established Greece as a parliamentary republic, reaffirming democratic principles, civil liberties, and the rule of law. The country's political landscape became more pluralistic, with the emergence of various political parties and the organization of free and fair elections.

One of the most significant developments during this period was Greece's entry into the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1981, later to become the European Union (EU). EU membership had a transformative effect on the Greek economy, infrastructure, and governance. Greece experienced significant economic growth, modernization, and an improvement in living standards during the 1980s and 1990s, largely driven by EU funds and investments.

Despite economic progress, Greece faced several challenges in the late 20th century and early 21st century. These included corruption, fiscal mismanagement, and a high level of public debt. The global financial crisis of 2008 had a severe impact on the Greek economy, leading to a debt crisis and the implementation of austerity measures in exchange for financial assistance from the EU and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). This period of economic hardship often referred to as the Greek government debt crisis, resulted in protests, social unrest, and political upheaval.

The political landscape continued to evolve with various parties coming to power, including both center-left and center-right governments. Greece also faced challenges in its foreign policy, particularly in its relationship with neighboring Turkey and its role in the Balkans.

In recent years, Greece has been grappling with issues such as the refugee and migrant crisis, which has placed a significant burden on the country's resources and infrastructure. Additionally, Greece faced the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, which had repercussions on public health and the economy.