Albania

Ottoman Albania

Albania flourished under the Ottoman Empire's rule for over four centuries. Beginning in the late 15th century, the Ottomans brought significant cultural, religious, and administrative changes to the Albanian territories. This era witnessed a blend of Islamic, Christian, and local traditions, fostering a unique cultural identity. The region's religious diversity persisted, with Islam becoming the dominant faith, coexisting alongside Christianity.

This period also saw the rise of prominent Albanian figures within the Ottoman bureaucracy, contributing to the empire's governance and cultural landscape. The Ottomans implemented a hierarchical administrative framework, allowing for a degree of local autonomy while consolidating their authority. Despite occasional revolts and resistance, the Ottoman grip on the region remained firm, fostering stability and enabling cultural exchanges that shaped Albania's political landscape.

Albanian National Awakening (Albanian Renaissance)

The Albanian Renaissance, spanning the late 18th and 19th centuries, was a significant epoch marked by the resurgence of Albanian culture and the quest for autonomy within the Ottoman Empire. This period witnessed a notable cultural awakening as Albanians sought to preserve their identity and promote intellectual and artistic endeavors inspired by Romanticism and Enlightenment ideals.

Following the Russian-Ottoman Wars, the Treaty of San Stefano overlooked assigning Albanian-populated territories to neighboring Slavic and Greek regions. Subsequently, the Treaty of Berlin prompted Albanians to organize themselves for the protection of their lands, culminating in the formation of the League of Prizren. Initially, the League received support from Ottoman authorities as it aimed to safeguard Albanian-populated regions, emphasizing Muslim solidarity.

However, tensions arose when the League, led by Abdyl Frashëri, began advocating for Albanian autonomy and proposed the creation of an Albanian Vilayet by merging several other vilayets. Ottoman authorities canceled their assistance when the league focused on working towards Albanian autonomy and requested the merging of four vilayets, including Kosovo, Shkodër, Monastir, and Ioannina. The league used military force to prevent the annexing of areas of Plav and Gusinje assigned to Montenegro. After several successful battles with Montenegrin troops, the league was forced to retreat from their contested regions. The league was later defeated by the Ottoman army sent by the sultan.

Nevertheless, the League of Prizren's efforts signified a crucial step towards Albanian self-determination within the Ottoman Empire. It laid the groundwork for future movements advocating for Albanian independence and served as a symbol of resilience while contributing to the preservation of Albanian identity amidst shifting geopolitical landscapes.

Independence

Independent Albania was a parliamentary state declared on 28 November 1912 during the First Balkan War. The delegation of Albania submitted a memorandum to the London Conference of 1913 requesting international recognition of independent Albania. At the beginning of the conference it was decided that the region of Albania would be under Ottoman suzerainty but with an autonomous government. The requests by the delegation for recognition based on the ethnic rights of Albanians were rejected and the treaty signed on 30 May 1913 partitioned a major part of the claimed lands between Serbia, Greece and Montenegro, leaving as independent territory only a central region, which was put under the protection of the Great Powers. The ambassadors of six Great Powers met again on 29 July 1913 and decided to constitute a new state, the Principality of Albania, as a constitutional monarchy. Finally, with the Treaty of Bucharest being signed in August 1913, this new independent state was established.

Principality of Albania

The Principality of Albania was a short-lived monarchy in Albania, headed by Wilhelm, Prince of Albania, that lasted from the Treaty of London of 1913 which ended the First Balkan War, through the invasions of Albania during World War I and the subsequent disputes over Albanian independence during the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, until 1925, when the monarchy was abolished and the Albanian Republic declared.

First Republic

Following the dissolution Principality of Albania, the establishment of the First Republic of Albania in 1925 represented a critical political transition for the nation. Led by President Ahmet Zogu, the republic sought to modernize the country, consolidating central authority and implementing reforms.

Politically, the First Republic of Albania aimed to stabilize the nation after periods of upheaval, focusing on nation-building, infrastructure development, and economic progress. Zogu's leadership aimed to strengthen Albania's international standing while attempting to navigate regional conflicts and balance relations with neighboring countries.

However, political challenges persisted, including internal opposition, socio-economic disparities, and external pressures. Despite efforts towards modernization, the republic grappled with political instability and faced the looming threat of Italian expansionism. In 1939, Italy led by Benito Mussolini, launched a military invasion of Albania, resulting to the exile of Zog and the creation of an Italian protectorate. In 1943, as Italy's control declined, Nazi Germany assumed control of Albania, subjecting Albanians to forced labor, economic exploitation and repression under German rule. The tide shifted in 1944 when the Albanian partisan forces, under the leadership of Enver Hoxha and other communist leaders, successfully liberated Albania from German occupation.

People’s Republic of Albania

The establishment of the People's Republic of Albania with the leadership of Enver Hoxha characterized a significant epoch in the modern history of Albania. Hoxha's regime embraced Marxism–Leninism ideologies and implemented authoritarian policies, including the prohibition of religious practices, severe restrictions on travel, and the abolition of private property rights. It was also defined by a persistent pattern of purges, extensive repression, instances of betrayal, and hostility towards external influences. Any form of opposition or resistance to his rule was met with expeditious and severe consequences, such as internal exile, extended imprisonment, and execution. The regime confronted a multitude of challenges in Albania that encompassed widespread poverty, illiteracy, health crises, and gender inequality. As a response, Hoxha initiated a modernization initiative aimed at attaining economic and social liberation and transforming the country into an industrial society. The regime placed a high priority on the diversification of the economy through a program of Soviet-style industrialization, comprehensive infrastructure development such as the introduction of a transformative railway system, expansion of education and healthcare services, elimination of adult illiteracy, and targeted advancements in areas such as women's rights.

The diplomatic history of Albania during communism was characterized by notable diplomatic conflicts. Initially aligned with Yugoslavia as a satellite state, the relationship deteriorated as Yugoslavia aimed to incorporate Albania within its territory. Subsequently, Albania established relations with the Soviet Union and engaged in trade agreements with other Eastern European countries, but experienced disagreements over Soviet policies, leading to strained ties with Moscow and a diplomatic separation in 1961. Simultaneously, tensions with the West also heightened due to Albania's refusal to hold free elections and allegations of Western support for Anti-Communist uprisings. Albania's enduring partnership was with China as it sided with Beijing during the Sino-Soviet conflict, resulting in severed ties with the Soviet Union and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact in response to the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968.

Under Hoxha's regime, Albania underwent a widespread campaign targeting religious clergy of various faiths, resulting in public persecution and executions, particularly targeting Muslims, Roman Catholics, and Eastern Orthodox adherents. In 1946, religious estates underwent nationalization, coinciding with the closure or transformation of religious institutions into various other purposes. The culmination occurred in 1976 when Albania attained the status of being the world's first constitutional atheist state. Under this regime, Albanians were forced to renounce their religious beliefs, adopt a secular way of life, and embrace a socialist ideology.

After enduring four decades of communism paired with the revolutions of 1989, Albania witnessed a notable rise in political activism, particularly among the students, which ultimately led to a transformation in the prevailing order. Subsequent to the attainment of widespread in the first multi-party elections of 1991, the communist party maintained a stronghold in the parliament until their defeat in the parliamentary elections of 1992 directed by the Democratic Party.

Fourth Republic

The Fourth Republic of Albania, established in 1992 after the fall of communism, marked a significant political shift towards democracy and a multiparty system. This period witnessed Albania's transition from a one-party state to a parliamentary republic. The adoption of a new constitution in 1998 reinforced democratic principles and established a framework for the separation of powers, ensuring checks and balances within the government.

Considerable economic and financial resources were devoted to pyramid schemes that were widely supported by the government. The schemes swept up somewhere between one-sixth and one-third of the population of the country. Despite the warnings of the International Monetary Fund, Sali Berisha defended the schemes as large investment firms, leading more people to redirect their remittances and sell their homes and cattle for cash to deposit in the schemes.

The schemes began to collapse in late 1996, leading many of the investors to join initially peaceful protests against the government, requesting their money back. The protests turned violent in February 1997 as government forces responded by firing on the demonstrators. In March, the Police and Republican Guard deserted, leaving their armories open. These were promptly emptied by militias and criminal gangs. The resulting civil war caused a wave of evacuations of foreign nationals and refugees.

The crisis led both Aleksandër Meksi and Sali Berisha to resign from office in the wake of the general election. In April 1997, Operation Alba, a UN peacekeeping force led by Italy, entered the country with two goals exclusively to assist with the evacuation of expatriates and to secure the ground for international organizations. The main international organization that was involved was the Western European Union's multinational Albanian Police element, which worked with the government to restructure the judicial system and simultaneously the Albanian police.

Contemporary

Following the disintegration of the communist system, Albania embarked on an active path towards Westernization with the ambition to obtain membership in the European Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Another notable milestone was reached in 2009 when the country attained membership in NATO. In adherence to its vision for further integration into the EU, it formally applied for membership on 28 April 2009. Another milestone was reached on 24 June 2014, when the country was granted official candidate status.